For whole-cluster at-rest encryption on Ubuntu, put PostgreSQL’s data storage on a LUKS volume backed by Linux dm-crypt. Unlock and mount that volume before PostgreSQL starts, and include every tablespace, WAL location, replica, snapshot, dump, and backup that must receive the same protection. Use PostgreSQL’s pgcrypto module only for selected values that must remain ciphertext while the database is online; it does not replace volume encryption.
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What at-rest encryption protects
At-rest encryption protects storage when the storage device is locked, powered off, removed, or stolen. Ubuntu describes full-disk encryption as ensuring that data on an entire disk or selected partitions is encrypted at rest, using the Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS) framework at the block level. PostgreSQL’s encryption documentation identifies dm-crypt plus LUKS as the Linux block-level or full-disk option for preventing unencrypted data from being read after a drive or computer is stolen.
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The important boundary is the unlock event. Once the LUKS mapping is opened and its filesystem is mounted, the operating system presents normal, readable files to PostgreSQL. A database process, a root-level attacker, or a privileged administrator on that running host can therefore access data according to the permissions and controls on the live system. LUKS is protection for storage that is not currently available to the operating system, not encryption of every query result or memory page.
The recommended Ubuntu architecture
Use a separate encrypted block device or partition for the PostgreSQL storage that needs protection. The usual flow is:
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- Ubuntu opens the LUKS container, creating a
dm-cryptmapping. - The operating system mounts the filesystem on that mapping.
- Ownership, permissions, and mandatory-access-control policy are checked for the PostgreSQL service account.
- Only after the mount is available does the PostgreSQL service start.
The encrypted scope must follow the data, not merely the directory name. A cluster can use external tablespaces, a separately located WAL directory, replica storage, or temporary staging paths. Any one of those left on an unencrypted device can create an unprotected copy of information that the primary data directory does not contain.
Plan the threat model before changing storage
Write down what “encrypted at rest” means for this deployment. A requirement covering only the primary cluster is different from one covering every copy of the data. Decide whether the following are in scope:
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- the main PostgreSQL data directory;
- WAL files and an archive destination;
- tablespaces outside the main directory;
- logical dumps, physical backups, and backup catalogs;
- replicas, standby servers, and their disks;
- cloud-volume snapshots and exported images;
- temporary files or staging exports created by maintenance jobs.
Also define who may unlock the volume, whether a human must be present during boot, where recovery material is stored, and what happens if the primary key, TPM, or host is lost. A design that encrypts the disk but has no tested recovery path is not a complete database protection plan.
Inventory the PostgreSQL paths
Do this inventory before creating or moving any encrypted volume. On Ubuntu, run read-only queries as the PostgreSQL operating-system account to identify the active cluster location and tablespaces:
sudo -u postgres psql -Atc 'SHOW data_directory;'reports the active data directory.sudo -u postgres psql -Atc 'SELECT spcname, pg_tablespace_location(oid) FROM pg_tablespace;'lists tablespaces and their filesystem locations. An empty location denotes the default tablespace inside the cluster directory.
Inspect the resulting paths on the host. Confirm whether pg_wal is inside the cluster or has been placed elsewhere, and identify the destinations used by backup, archiving, export, and snapshot jobs. Check for symbolic links and mounts so that an apparently local path is not silently crossing onto another device. Record filesystem identifiers rather than relying on a device name that can change between boots.
Prepare the encrypted storage
Fresh Ubuntu installation
For a new host, create the encrypted storage during installation or with Ubuntu’s supported storage tooling. Put the filesystem that will contain the cluster on the LUKS-backed mapping, and decide separately whether the operating-system volume, swap, and other service data require encryption. Keep the PostgreSQL service disabled until the encrypted mount has been created, populated, and verified.
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The exact partition layout depends on whether the machine uses a single disk, separate data disks, RAID, or a cloud volume. Do not copy a layout intended for one of those environments to another without checking boot behavior, recovery access, and the provider’s snapshot model.
Existing cluster
Do not format or reinitialize a live PostgreSQL data device in place. A safe migration needs a maintenance window or a replication-based cutover:
- Take a backup whose restore procedure is already understood, and verify that it is readable before touching the source.
- Create the LUKS-backed filesystem on new storage. The new filesystem must not be mounted over the old directory until the copy has been validated.
- Stop writes using a planned outage, or synchronize a replacement host and promote it according to the replication plan.
- Copy or restore the cluster, tablespaces, and required WAL according to the chosen migration method.
- Mount the encrypted filesystem at the final path, preserve PostgreSQL ownership and directory permissions, and check AppArmor or SELinux policy where those controls are enabled.
- Start PostgreSQL against the new location, run consistency and application checks, and retain the old copy only until the rollback and validation period has ended.
- After confirming that no unencrypted copy is required, remove or securely dispose of the old storage under the organization’s retention policy.
The migration method and service settings differ for a package-managed cluster, a manually initialized cluster, and a cloud virtual machine. Treat the storage move, service ordering, and rollback as one change rather than changing only data_directory.
Make unlock, mount, and service startup one operation
PostgreSQL must never start while its intended encrypted filesystem is absent. If the mount fails and the service starts anyway, it could write into an ordinary directory on the root filesystem, creating an unencrypted second cluster or masking the real data. Configure the boot and service dependencies so that opening the LUKS mapping and mounting the filesystem are prerequisites for PostgreSQL startup, and so a failed mount prevents the service from proceeding.
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At every boot or service restart, verify:
- the expected LUKS mapping is open;
- the expected filesystem identifier is mounted at the expected path;
- the mount is writable by PostgreSQL and not by unintended users;
- mandatory-access-control rules still permit PostgreSQL to read and write the path;
- the service is using that path, not a fallback directory.
After a successful start, confirm the active data_directory from SQL and compare it with the mounted filesystem. Include this check in monitoring or the startup runbook rather than relying on visual inspection during an incident.
Choose how the LUKS volume unlocks
Operator-entered passphrase
A passphrase is straightforward and keeps unattended boot from automatically exposing the database volume. Someone must supply it at boot or service start, which can be appropriate for a server whose operator is expected to be present. Store an offline recovery method separately from the host and document who is authorized to use it.
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LUKS stores the volume key in encrypted form in its header and derives a key-encryption key from the passphrase. Ubuntu documents PBKDF2 for LUKS1 and Argon2 for LUKS2. The passphrase protects access to the volume; it is not a PostgreSQL role password and should not be placed in database configuration files or an unencrypted script.
TPM-assisted unlocking with Clevis
Ubuntu also documents TPM-backed unlock paths, including integration with Clevis. This can allow a trusted machine to unlock automatically when the expected measured-boot conditions are present. The trade-off is operational: boot measurements, TPM availability, enrollment, firmware changes, and recovery-key procedures all become dependencies.
Use a TPM path only with a tested fallback. Keep an offline recovery key, document how to re-enroll after motherboard or firmware replacement, and define what happens when the host no longer satisfies the policy. Automatic boot is convenient, but it does not remove the need for key custody, revocation, or incident response.
Include copies outside the primary data directory
WAL and tablespaces
WAL can contain row changes and values that are not yet represented in a backup. If it is on a separate device, encrypt that device as well. External tablespaces must be checked individually; encrypting the main cluster path does not encrypt a tablespace mounted elsewhere.
Backups, dumps, and snapshots
A database volume can be encrypted while an exported dump remains an ordinary readable file. Encrypt backup destinations and the media or object storage that holds them. Apply the same rule to replica disks and to snapshots or machine images: a snapshot created outside the encrypted boundary may expose the database even when the live volume is protected.
Document which key is needed for each backup set, how retention and deletion work, and how a restore is performed on a clean host. Test the restore, not just the backup job’s success message.
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LUKS versus pgcrypto
These mechanisms solve different problems and are often used together.
| Decision axis | LUKS with dm-crypt |
PostgreSQL pgcrypto |
|---|---|---|
| Coverage | Whole encrypted block device or partition, covering the filesystem placed there. | Selected columns or values that the application explicitly encrypts. |
| Protected state | Data on a locked, removed, or powered-off device. | Chosen values remain ciphertext in storage while other database data is unchanged. |
| Plaintext exposure | After the mapping is opened and the filesystem is mounted, the operating system provides normal plaintext files. | Plaintext and keys exist during database processing and when encrypted values are decrypted for a query. |
| Key and boot behavior | Passphrase entry or TPM-assisted unlock, plus recovery material. | Keys must be supplied by the application or a separate key-management process; database access alone must not expose them unnecessarily. |
| Operational scope | Requires coverage decisions for WAL, tablespaces, backups, replicas, and snapshots. | Requires application changes, key lifecycle design, and careful handling of encrypted and decrypted values. |
| Primary failure mode | An unavailable key, TPM, or mount prevents the database from starting. | Lost application keys can make selected values unrecoverable; incorrect encryption handling can also break queries or migrations. |
Use pgcrypto for selected fields, not as disk encryption
The pgcrypto extension provides hashing, password hashing, PGP encryption, and raw encryption functions. PostgreSQL requires the server to have OpenSSL support for the module. It is appropriate when the application needs a particular identifier, note, token, or other field stored as ciphertext even after the database volume is online.
Encryption must be designed into the data model. Decide which columns are encrypted, how keys are selected and rotated, whether equality search or ordering is still required, and how old ciphertext is re-encrypted during a key change. Keep application or key-service credentials outside the database data directory and restrict which services can request decryption.
PostgreSQL cautions that all pgcrypto functions run inside the database server. Values and passwords can move in clear text between pgcrypto and client applications, so use local connections or SSL/TLS connections. If the server and its database administrators cannot be trusted, perform the cryptography in the client application or another trusted service instead. Field encryption does not hide plaintext from a compromised running server that can execute the decryption operation.
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What LUKS does not defend against
Because a mounted filesystem provides an unencrypted view, LUKS alone does not protect against a compromised running host, a malicious root user, an attacker who has taken over PostgreSQL, or an administrator who already has permission to read the files. It also does not encrypt network traffic, database authentication, query results, logs, or backups placed outside the encrypted boundary.
Pair storage encryption with least-privilege PostgreSQL roles, strong authentication, TLS for client connections, host patching and hardening, restricted administrative access, encrypted backups, and monitoring. These controls address different stages of the attack and should not be presented as interchangeable.
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Performance and hardware decisions
No universal overhead percentage or hardware recommendation is established for this Ubuntu/PostgreSQL arrangement. Encryption cost depends on the CPU, storage device, workload, filesystem, WAL rate, concurrency, and whether other services share the host. Measure the actual system rather than selecting hardware from a generic claim.
Benchmark a representative workload before production migration, measuring transaction latency, throughput, checkpoint behavior, WAL generation, backup duration, restart time, and recovery time with the encrypted layout. Repeat the test after enabling any field-level encryption because database-side cryptography changes CPU use and query behavior differently from block encryption. Keep the test conditions and dataset size so that a later hardware or PostgreSQL change can be compared fairly.
Recovery and operational checklist
- Record the encrypted devices, filesystem identifiers, mount points, tablespaces, WAL location, and backup destinations.
- Identify the people or systems authorized to unlock each volume.
- Store offline recovery material separately from the server and test that it works.
- Document the boot sequence: unlock, mount, permission checks, policy checks, PostgreSQL start, and verification.
- Encrypt replicas, dumps, snapshots, and backup media independently where they are stored.
- Test a clean-host restore, including the key required to read each backup.
- Exercise the lost-passphrase and failed-TPM procedures in a non-production environment.
- Plan key rotation or revocation without leaving an old unencrypted copy behind.
- Monitor for an absent mount, an unexpected filesystem at the data path, or PostgreSQL starting before the encrypted volume is ready.
Troubleshooting common failures
PostgreSQL starts but the encrypted volume is not mounted
Stop the service before it writes more data. Check the mounted filesystem and the service’s active data directory, then correct the startup dependency so a missing mount causes a hard failure. Inspect whether PostgreSQL created a new empty directory beneath the intended mount point; that directory must not be mistaken for the real cluster.
The volume will not unlock
Do not repeatedly overwrite the LUKS header or reinitialize the device. Confirm that the correct passphrase or recovery key is being used, and for TPM-assisted unlocking check the TPM’s availability and the measured-boot conditions. If the original key material is unavailable, recovery depends on a separate backup or a tested replica; LUKS does not provide a back door.
PostgreSQL cannot read the mounted path
Verify ownership, mode bits, mount options, symbolic links, and AppArmor or SELinux policy. Compare the path used by PostgreSQL with the path that was mounted, and check that every external tablespace is available before starting the cluster.
A restore succeeds but some data is missing
Check whether WAL archives, external tablespaces, or a separately stored backup catalog were omitted from the encrypted backup set. A protected primary directory is not proof that all recovery inputs were protected or retained.
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- Need protection from a stolen or removed Ubuntu disk: use LUKS and
dm-cryptfor the complete storage boundary, including every required copy. - Need only a few sensitive fields hidden while the database remains online: add
pgcryptoor application-side encryption with a separate key-management design. - Need both properties: encrypt the storage with LUKS and encrypt especially sensitive fields separately, accepting the additional key and application complexity.
- Need protection from a compromised running host: do not treat LUKS as sufficient; strengthen host, database, network, role, and monitoring controls, and consider client-side cryptography for data that the server must not see.
The practical test is not whether a LUKS header exists. It is whether every relevant copy is covered, the volume cannot be bypassed during startup, authorized operators can recover it, and the design still limits exposure after the host is running.
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