The safest provider-neutral pattern is a GitLab pipeline that runs tests and builds first, then a protected deployment job connects over SSH to a dedicated, non-root user on your Linux VPS. The job transfers an exact artifact (for example, with rsync) and invokes an idempotent server-side script that installs dependencies, runs required migrations, restarts the service, checks health, and leaves a rollback point.
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What the deployment architecture looks like
Separate responsibilities so a failed test cannot reach production and a compromised build job has as little access as possible:
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- GitLab Runner: executes test, build, and deployment jobs. A Docker executor is a common choice because each job starts in an isolated container; a shell executor runs directly on the runner host.
- Test and build jobs: produce a known artifact such as a
dist/directory. - Protected deploy job: runs only for the production branch or protected tag, uses production-scoped variables, and is serialized with a resource group.
- Linux VPS: accepts SSH from the runner through a dedicated deploy account. A reviewed script on the VPS performs privileged or service-specific operations.
This arrangement keeps credentials out of the repository, makes deployment history visible in GitLab, and gives you a single place on the server to enforce validation, migrations, restart behavior, health checks, and rollback.
Prerequisites and decisions to make first
- A GitLab project containing a working
.gitlab-ci.yml. - A Linux VPS reachable over SSH on TCP port 22 or on your explicitly configured alternative port.
- A non-root VPS user created solely for deployment, with only the permissions required by the deployment script.
- A GitLab Runner. Docker and shell executors are common; assign a specific tag to the runner intended for production deployment.
- A deployment directory and a repeatable server-side script that can install dependencies, apply migrations when required, restart or reload the service, and return a failure status when any operation fails.
Choose the release model before writing the pipeline. An in-place deployment replaces files in one directory and is simple, but a partially copied release can be visible to users. Versioned release directories let you switch a symlink or service target atomically and preserve older artifacts for rollback, at the cost of more disk space and cleanup logic. Likewise, decide whether the VPS receives files from the runner or pulls a versioned artifact itself. Runner-to-server transfer is straightforward with rsync; server-side pulls can reduce the amount of production data handled by the runner but require the VPS to authenticate to the artifact location.
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Create and restrict the VPS deploy account
Use a dedicated identity
Do not use your personal SSH key or the VPS root account for CI. Create a separate user, such as deploy, and give it ownership of the application directory or narrowly scoped permissions through the service manager. Keep administrative actions in a script reviewed and owned by an administrator. If the service needs a privileged restart, grant only that exact command through your operating system’s privilege mechanism rather than unrestricted administrative access.
Prepare the directory and script
Choose a path such as /srv/my-app. The deploy account should be able to write the release or artifact subdirectory and execute the deployment script, but it should not be able to modify unrelated applications, SSH configuration, or system binaries. The script should accept no arbitrary shell text from the pipeline; pass fixed arguments or environment values that it validates.
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- Verify the expected artifact exists and is owned by the deploy account.
- Validate configuration and required environment variables before changing the running service.
- Install locked dependencies or unpack the exact build artifact.
- Run database migrations in a controlled, backward-compatible order when the release requires them.
- Switch the service to the new release and restart or reload it.
- Run a local health check and return a non-zero exit code if it fails.
- Retain the previous release or artifact so an administrator can restore it.
GitLab marks the job failed when the remote command returns a non-zero status, so every failure path in the script must use an appropriate exit code.
Set up a dedicated SSH key for CI
Generate a key pair
Generate an automation-only key pair for the deploy account. Keep the private key outside the repository and do not reuse a personal key. Rotate the key periodically and immediately after suspected exposure. GitLab’s SSH guidance specifically advises storing private keys securely, avoiding personal keys for automated jobs, and rotating automation keys regularly.
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Install the public key on the VPS
Append the public key to the deploy user’s ~/.ssh/authorized_keys file. Set restrictive ownership and permissions on the home directory, the .ssh directory, and authorized_keys. Test the key manually from a controlled workstation before involving CI:
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ssh -p 22 [email protected] /srv/my-app/deploy.sh --checkUse your actual host, port, user, and script path. A successful manual test confirms the account can authenticate and execute the intended command without granting it unnecessary access.
Save variables in GitLab
In the project, open Settings → CI/CD → Variables. Add the private key as a File variable named SSH_PRIVATE_KEY. Mark it Protected and scope it to the production environment. Add these additional variables as protected values:
| Variable | Purpose | Typical value |
|---|---|---|
VPS_HOST |
DNS name or address of the VPS | vps.example.net |
VPS_USER |
Dedicated non-root account | deploy |
VPS_PORT |
SSH listener port | 22 or your configured port |
DEPLOY_PATH |
Application directory on the VPS | /srv/my-app |
VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS |
Expected host-key line(s) | The verified entry for the VPS |
Variables that identify production infrastructure should remain out of source control. Protected variables are exposed only to protected branches or tags, so a feature branch cannot use the production key merely by editing the pipeline file.
Verify the server host key
Record the VPS host key through a trusted administrative channel and store the resulting line in VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS, or provide it through another protected mechanism. Do not disable host-key verification or blindly accept an unknown key in a production job; that would allow a man-in-the-middle host to capture the deployment key.
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Choose and harden the GitLab Runner
| Executor | Isolation and strengths | Risks and appropriate use |
|---|---|---|
| Docker | Each job runs in an isolated container; tool versions can be declared in the image. | Container configuration still matters. Avoid privileged mode unless a narrowly justified, controlled requirement exists. |
| Shell | Uses tools already installed on the runner host and is convenient for specialized environments. | Job commands run directly on that host, so a compromised job has a larger blast radius. Dedicate and harden the host. |
| SSH | Runner design executes jobs on a remote machine. | This is different from opening an SSH connection inside a normal deployment job; understand which machine holds tools and secrets. |
Tag the production runner, for example production-deploy, and add that tag to the deploy job. A tagged job is scheduled only on a runner carrying all of its tags. Keep self-managed production runners isolated from unrelated projects, patch them, restrict who can register runners, and avoid sharing a privileged runner with untrusted code. GitLab warns that privileged self-managed runners can expose their host to privilege escalation; host PID namespace sharing and privileged containers should not be enabled without a tightly controlled reason.
Build the pipeline in stages
Run tests before building, and deploy only after both succeed. The following provider-neutral configuration uses an artifact, a protected production rule, host-key verification, and a resource group that permits only one production deployment at a time.
stages: [test, build, deploy]
test:
stage: test
script:
- ./ci/test.sh
build:
stage: build
script:
- ./ci/build.sh
artifacts:
paths: [dist/]
deploy_production:
stage: deploy
tags: [production-deploy]
environment:
name: production
resource_group: production
rules:
- if: '$CI_COMMIT_BRANCH == $CI_DEFAULT_BRANCH'
before_script:
- command -v ssh-agent >/dev/null || (apt-get update -y && apt-get install -y openssh-client rsync)
- eval "$(ssh-agent -s)"
- chmod 400 "$SSH_PRIVATE_KEY"
- ssh-add "$SSH_PRIVATE_KEY"
- mkdir -p ~/.ssh && chmod 700 ~/.ssh
- printf '%sn' "$VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS" > ~/.ssh/known_hosts
script:
- rsync -az --delete -e "ssh -p ${VPS_PORT:-22}" dist/ "$VPS_USER@$VPS_HOST:$DEPLOY_PATH/dist/"
- ssh -p "${VPS_PORT:-22}" "$VPS_USER@$VPS_HOST" "$DEPLOY_PATH/deploy.sh"The conditional package-install command assumes a Debian-based job image. If your image uses another package manager, bake OpenSSH and rsync into the image or replace that command. The file variable points to a temporary file; chmod 400 limits its permissions before ssh-add loads it into the agent. The explicit port keeps the job correct when SSH is not on 22.
How artifacts move between jobs
GitLab makes the dist/ artifact from the build job available to the later deploy job. The --delete option makes the destination mirror the artifact, removing files deleted from the build. Use it only when the destination directory contains deployment-owned files; never point it at a directory containing user uploads or unrelated data. If the application needs uploads, store them outside the release directory.
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The rule in this example deploys commits on the default branch. A protected-tag rule is another option when production promotion is release-based. Add a manual approval when a human must promote a tested build. The production environment records deployment history and provides a place to apply environment protection and variable scoping.
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Prevent overlapping and outdated deployments
Two pipelines can otherwise connect to the VPS at the same time, leaving whichever transfer or restart finishes last in control. resource_group: production serializes jobs that target that group, so only one production deployment runs at once. Keep the group name stable across every production deploy job.
Serialization alone does not decide which commit should win if an older pipeline is waiting. Configure GitLab’s deployment-safety controls to prevent outdated jobs from replacing a newer revision, or cancel superseded pipelines before they reach deployment. A practical policy is: allow only the protected default branch or protected release tags, require successful tests and build, serialize the production resource group, and require approval for high-risk changes.
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Design the VPS deployment script for safe releases
In-place deployment
An in-place script copies or unpacks the artifact directly into $DEPLOY_PATH, runs migrations, and restarts the service. It consumes little disk space and is easy to understand. Its weakness is that a process can observe a mixture of old and new files during the copy unless the application and web server tolerate that transition.
Versioned releases
A versioned script creates a directory named for the commit or release, transfers the artifact there, validates it, and then switches a stable symlink such as current. The service points at current, so the switch is fast and atomic on the filesystem. Keep at least one known-good previous release, and remove older releases only after a retention check. This pattern makes rollback a pointer change rather than a second full deployment.
Migrations and health checks
Run migrations before switching traffic when they are backward compatible with both the old and new application versions. If a migration cannot be backward compatible, coordinate the schema and application rollout explicitly instead of allowing the script to proceed automatically. After restart, check the service locally and, where appropriate, query a health endpoint through the same listener users reach. Fail quickly on a bad status, missing configuration, or startup timeout, and leave the previous release available.
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Transfer alternatives and release trade-offs
| Decision | Option A | Option B | What changes operationally |
|---|---|---|---|
| Artifact transfer | Runner uses rsync over SSH |
VPS pulls a versioned artifact | rsync is simple and fast for a prepared directory; a pull model requires VPS-side credentials and network access to the artifact store. |
| Release layout | In-place directory | Versioned directories and a stable symlink | In-place uses less disk; versioned releases make rollback safer and more explicit. |
| Promotion | Automatic on protected branch | Manual approval or protected tag | Automatic delivery is faster; approval adds a human checkpoint for production risk. |
| Runner isolation | Docker executor | Shell executor | Docker limits interaction with the host; shell is simpler but increases the impact of a malicious or compromised job. |
| Rollback | Rebuild and redeploy | Retained release artifact | Rebuilding depends on tools and source availability; a retained artifact or release can be restored immediately. |
Test the first deployment safely
- Run the test and build jobs on a non-production branch and confirm the artifact contains exactly the files the VPS should receive.
- Use a staging VPS or staging environment with a separate SSH key, user, host-key variable, path, and resource group.
- Confirm the deploy user cannot read unrelated secrets, alter other applications, or obtain an interactive root shell.
- Trigger a deployment with an intentionally failing health check and verify that the GitLab job fails and the previous release remains available.
- Start two pipelines close together and verify that the resource group prevents simultaneous production jobs.
- Restore the previous release using the documented rollback procedure, then record the time and commands required.
Troubleshoot common failures
“Permission denied” when loading the key
Confirm SSH_PRIVATE_KEY is a file variable, not a masked text value containing broken line endings. Run chmod 400 "$SSH_PRIVATE_KEY" before ssh-add, and ensure the job image includes ssh-agent.
Host-key verification fails
Regenerate the known-hosts entry through a trusted channel and update the protected VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS variable. Do not solve the error by enabling an option that accepts every host key.
The job cannot connect
Check that the VPS firewall permits the runner’s egress address, that VPS_HOST resolves from the runner, and that VPS_PORT matches the SSH daemon. Test the same host, port, and user from a comparable network location.
rsync succeeds but the application is unchanged
Verify the destination path, the artifact contents, and whether the service actually reads $DEPLOY_PATH/dist/. The remote command should print the release it selected and the service status after restart.
The deployment hangs or two versions appear
Inspect the server-side script for commands waiting for interactive input, then check the GitLab environment’s resource group and pending jobs. A stable release pointer and a health check prevent a half-copied directory from becoming the active version.
Production security checklist
- Use a dedicated, non-root deploy user and a dedicated automation key.
- Store the private key, host, user, port, path, and known-hosts entry as protected CI/CD variables scoped to production.
- Never print private variables or run SSH with host-key checking disabled.
- Protect the production environment and restrict deployment to protected branches or tags.
- Use a production runner tag and isolate self-managed runners from unrelated projects.
- Avoid privileged containers and host PID namespace sharing unless the requirement is narrowly justified and controlled.
- Serialize production deployments and prevent superseded pipelines from deploying after a newer revision.
- Keep the VPS script reviewed, idempotent, and narrow in scope; return non-zero on validation, migration, restart, or health-check failure.
- Retain a rollback artifact or release and rehearse restoring it.
- Rotate the deploy key regularly and after any suspected exposure; monitor its use.
Operational checklist for each application
Before enabling automatic production delivery, document the exact service name, deployment path, migration command, health endpoint, expected startup time, rollback command, artifact retention period, and the person authorized to approve a manual promotion. The pipeline can automate transport and sequencing, but the VPS script and its permissions determine what a compromised job is ultimately able to change.
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