The Tool Desk
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What a reliable VPS database backup includes
An automatic backup is a small recovery system, not just a cron line. A dependable workflow has six parts:
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- Consistent capture: use
pg_dumporpg_dumpallfor PostgreSQL, andmysqldumpfor MySQL. - Timestamped local output: write each run to a file whose name identifies the database and time.
- Off-site storage: copy the encrypted result to a destination that does not depend on the same VPS disk or account.
- Retention: keep several recovery points and prune old ones automatically.
- Failure visibility: record exit status, upload and verification errors, and low-space conditions outside the backup directory.
- Restore drills: periodically restore from the off-site copy into an isolated database or host and check real application data.
This design protects against more than accidental deletion. A local backup can disappear with a failed disk, a compromised VPS, an operator mistake or an incorrect snapshot. Keeping one copy outside the VPS account or host and exercising restores addresses those failure modes.
Choose the backup method for your recovery objectives
Start with two questions. Your recovery point objective (RPO) is how much recently changed data you can lose. Your recovery time objective (RTO) is how quickly service must return. Portability, point-in-time recovery, storage cost, key ownership, operational complexity and restore-test ergonomics matter as well.
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| Method | What it captures | Strengths | Limits and requirements |
|---|---|---|---|
PostgreSQL SQL dump (pg_dump) |
One PostgreSQL database in a logical, portable format | Straightforward to inspect and restore; independent of the original data directory layout | Restore time usually grows with database size; periodic dumps alone do not provide continuous point-in-time recovery |
PostgreSQL global dump (pg_dumpall) |
Databases plus cluster-wide objects such as roles and other global definitions | Includes objects that a single-database dump does not | Still a logical dump; large systems may need a separate base-backup and WAL-archiving design |
MySQL logical dump (mysqldump) |
SQL statements representing selected MySQL databases or tables | Portable and usable with ordinary MySQL tools; easy to move to object storage | Choose transactional-consistency and routine options for the engine and workload; large restores can be slow |
| Filesystem or base backup | Database files, captured with database-specific consistency procedures | Can reduce restore time for large datasets | Requires compatible storage handling and correct shutdown or consistency procedures; files are less portable than logical dumps |
| Continuous archiving and point-in-time recovery | A base backup plus ongoing PostgreSQL WAL (write-ahead log) archives | Can recover to a precise time, reducing data loss between scheduled dumps | More storage, monitoring and operational complexity; both the base backup and WAL archive must be protected |
PostgreSQL’s Backup and Restore documentation identifies SQL dumps, filesystem-level backups and continuous archiving as distinct approaches and advises regular backups for valuable data. For a small or moderately sized database, a logical dump is usually the clearest starting point. When a large PostgreSQL system needs precise recovery to a time just before an incident, configure a base backup with WAL archiving rather than relying only on periodic dumps.
Prepare the VPS and backup identity
Create a root-controlled wrapper
Place the production script at /usr/local/sbin/db-backup. Make it owned by root and executable only by root, or run it as a dedicated service account with only the permissions it needs. Keep the script itself separate from the directory that stores dump files.
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sudo install -d -o root -g root -m 0700 /var/lib/db-backups
sudo install -d -o root -g root -m 0700 /var/log/db-backupsThe backup process needs permission to read the database and write its temporary output, but it should not be an unrestricted application administrator. Create a separate database identity with the minimum privileges required by your chosen dump command. Keep the object-storage or repository key separately protected from the VPS user account that runs the application.
Keep secrets out of process arguments
Passwords placed directly in a command can be exposed through shell history, process listings or scheduler logs. Store credentials in a root-readable file or a secret store, and pass the file through the client’s supported mechanism. For PostgreSQL, a protected .pgpass file or an equivalent secret mechanism avoids putting the password in the pg_dump command line. For MySQL, use a protected option file such as /root/.my.cnf:
[client]
user=backup_user
password=REPLACE_WITH_SECRET
host=127.0.0.1sudo chown root:root /root/.my.cnf
sudo chmod 0600 /root/.my.cnfUse a repository key or password that is not stored in the same unprotected place as the database credentials. Encryption protects the archive if an object-storage account or transfer path is exposed; separate key protection determines whether an attacker can decrypt it.
Build a PostgreSQL dump job
Dump one database with pg_dump
A single-database job should create a temporary file, stop immediately on a failed dump, and rename the file only after the command completes. A timestamped final name prevents a later run from overwriting a known-good recovery point.
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#!/usr/bin/env bash
set -Eeuo pipefail
umask 077
exec 9>/run/lock/db-backup.lock
flock -n 9 || { echo "another backup is running" >&2; exit 1; }
stamp="$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)"
out_dir=/var/lib/db-backups/postgres
mkdir -p "$out_dir"
tmp="$out_dir/app-${stamp}.dump.tmp"
final="$out_dir/app-${stamp}.dump"
trap 'rm -f -- "$tmp"' EXIT
pg_dump --format=custom --file="$tmp" --dbname=app
mv -- "$tmp" "$final"
printf 'created %sn' "$final"The flock descriptor prevents overlapping runs. Overlap can exhaust disk space, compete for database resources and create confusing upload status. The temporary suffix ensures an interrupted process is not mistaken for a complete dump. The custom format is intended for PostgreSQL’s restore tools; if you need a plain SQL file for inspection, select the plain format instead and adjust the restore procedure.
Include roles and global objects when required
pg_dump covers one database. Roles, tablespaces and other cluster-wide objects need a separate pg_dumpall capture when they are part of your recovery plan. Keep that global dump alongside the database dump and document the restore order: recreate global objects first, then restore the database contents.
pg_dumpall --globals-only > "$out_dir/globals-${stamp}.sql.tmp"
mv -- "$out_dir/globals-${stamp}.sql.tmp" "$out_dir/globals-${stamp}.sql"Do not claim a complete PostgreSQL recovery if the application depends on roles or permissions that were never captured.
When dumps are not enough
For a large PostgreSQL installation or a workload that cannot tolerate the interval between dumps, configure a base backup and continuous WAL archiving. That design supports point-in-time recovery, but it adds monitoring obligations: verify that WAL files are arriving, that the base backup is complete, that retention does not delete required WAL, and that the recovery procedure is documented and rehearsed.
Build a MySQL dump job
Use mysqldump with workload-appropriate consistency
A basic job can read credentials from the protected option file and write a timestamped SQL file:
#!/usr/bin/env bash
set -Eeuo pipefail
umask 077
exec 9>/run/lock/mysql-backup.lock
flock -n 9 || { echo "another backup is running" >&2; exit 1; }
stamp="$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)"
out_dir=/var/lib/db-backups/mysql
mkdir -p "$out_dir"
tmp="$out_dir/app-${stamp}.sql.tmp"
final="$out_dir/app-${stamp}.sql"
trap 'rm -f -- "$tmp"' EXIT
mysqldump --databases app --single-transaction --routines --events > "$tmp"
test -s "$tmp"
mv -- "$tmp" "$final"
printf 'created %sn' "$final"The exact options depend on the storage engine, transaction behavior and whether stored routines or scheduled events are part of the application. --single-transaction is appropriate for many transactional workloads, but it is not a universal consistency guarantee for every engine or operation. Verify the generated file before upload and document any tables or objects that require a different procedure.
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The VPS-to-object-storage pattern is also applicable to MySQL: run the dump locally, validate it, compress or encrypt it as appropriate, then transfer it to an off-site repository. Never treat a zero-byte file or a command that merely started as a successful backup.
Compress, encrypt and move the result off the VPS
Use an encrypted repository
Restic is an encrypted repository client that supports S3 and S3-compatible storage, SFTP, Azure Blob, Google Cloud Storage and other backends. It does not schedule jobs itself; cron or a systemd timer must invoke it. A typical flow is:
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- Initialize or select a repository in the off-site destination and protect its repository password separately.
- Run the database dump into a directory that is not the repository itself.
- Use
restic backupto send the completed file or directory to the repository. - Run repository checks according to your maintenance policy and record failures.
- Prune old snapshots only after confirming that the retention policy still leaves the recovery points your RPO requires.
restic -r "$RESTIC_REPOSITORY" backup /var/lib/db-backups/postgres
restic -r "$RESTIC_REPOSITORY" forget --keep-daily <daily-count> --keep-weekly <weekly-count> --keep-monthly <monthly-count> --pruneReplace the values in angle brackets with counts from your written retention policy. Keep the repository password and storage credentials out of the script when possible, and ensure the process can read them without exposing them to other users.
Use Borg when an SSH repository fits
Borg is a deduplicating archiver with compression, authenticated encryption and repositories reachable over SSH. Its borg prune command supports daily, weekly and monthly keep rules. It can be a good fit when you control an SSH-accessible off-site host and want deduplication, but the same principles apply: protect the encryption key, monitor repository operations and test a restore from that remote repository.
Why a VPS snapshot is not a complete database strategy
A filesystem snapshot can be fast, but it depends on database-specific consistency and compatible storage handling. A snapshot taken during writes may not provide a clean database image, and a snapshot on the same provider or account may be unavailable during a provider-wide or account-level incident. Use snapshots as an additional layer when their consistency and recovery behavior are documented, not as a substitute for a database-native dump or a properly configured continuous-archiving system.
Schedule the job without overlapping runs
Cron
Cron is adequate for a straightforward schedule. Edit root’s crontab with sudo crontab -e and invoke the wrapper rather than embedding credentials and a long pipeline in the crontab itself:
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17 2 * * * /usr/local/sbin/db-backup >>/var/log/db-backups/cron.log 2>&1The wrapper should return a non-zero status for a failed dump, failed upload, failed verification or failed prune. Configure an external alerting path for that status; a log file that nobody reads is not an alert.
systemd timer
A systemd service gives you explicit logging and dependency controls. Create /etc/systemd/system/db-backup.service:
[Unit]
Description=Database backup
[Service]
Type=oneshot
ExecStart=/usr/local/sbin/db-backupThen create /etc/systemd/system/db-backup.timer:
[Unit]
Description=Run database backup
[Timer]
OnCalendar=*-*-* 02:17:00
Persistent=true
[Install]
WantedBy=timers.targetsudo systemctl daemon-reload
sudo systemctl enable --now db-backup.timer
systemctl list-timers db-backup.timer
sudo systemctl start db-backup.service
sudo journalctl -u db-backup.servicePersistent=true allows a missed calendar run to be started after the machine returns. The lock in the script remains useful because a delayed run can collide with a manually started job or another scheduler.
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Retention, logging and monitoring
Define recovery points before pruning
Retention should reflect the RPO rather than an arbitrary number of files. Keep multiple recent points for accidental edits, plus older daily, weekly and monthly points when your operational policy requires them. Borg explicitly supports daily, weekly and monthly keep rules; restic applies equivalent policy through its forget and prune commands. Confirm the resulting snapshots before deleting anything.
Keep evidence outside the backup directory
Write scheduler output and failure records to a separate log location or remote logging system. If the local disk is damaged, logs stored inside the backup directory disappear with the dumps. Record:
- start and finish time;
- database and dump format;
- dump, compression, encryption and upload exit statuses;
- archive size and destination snapshot identifier;
- verification or repository-check results;
- free space before and after the run;
- the retention action and any files removed.
Alert on failed dumps, failed uploads, verification errors and low free space. Also alert when no successful backup has arrived within the expected schedule window; a silent scheduler failure is otherwise easy to miss.
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Verify that a backup can actually be restored
Restore PostgreSQL to an isolated instance
- Obtain a copy from the same off-site destination used for production, not from the local staging directory.
- Start a disposable PostgreSQL instance with a separate data directory and network access restricted to the test operator.
- Restore global objects from the
pg_dumpall --globals-onlyfile when the production recovery plan requires them. - Create an empty target database and run
pg_restorefor a custom-format dump, or execute the plain SQL file withpsql. - Run schema checks and queries for required tables, representative rows, indexes and constraints.
- Configure the application against the restored database using test credentials and confirm that it starts, authenticates and can perform a representative read and write.
- Destroy the disposable instance and record the restore duration, errors and corrective actions.
createdb restore_check
pg_restore --exit-on-error --dbname=restore_check app-YYYYMMDDTHHMMSSZ.dump
psql --dbname=restore_check --command='dt'The date in the example is a placeholder inside a command pattern; use the actual recovered filename.
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Restore MySQL and inspect application data
- Download a completed SQL dump from off-site storage into an isolated host or container.
- Create a fresh target database and import the file with the MySQL client.
- Check that expected schemas, routines and events exist when they were included in the dump.
- Run representative queries and connect a staging copy of the application with non-production credentials.
- Measure the elapsed restore time and note any warnings, character-set issues or missing privileges.
mysql --database=restore_check < app-YYYYMMDDTHHMMSSZ.sqlA successful transfer or a snapshot listing proves only that bytes or metadata exist. A restore drill proves that the database engine can read them and that the application can use the result.
Common failure modes and fixes
The dump succeeds locally but the upload fails
Check the destination credentials, network path, repository password, available remote space and the uploader’s exit status. Leave the completed local file in a protected staging area until the upload and verification succeed, then let retention remove it according to policy. Alert immediately rather than waiting for the next scheduled run.
The job creates partial or zero-byte files
Write to a temporary name and rename only after the dump exits successfully. Test that the file is non-empty and, where supported, run a format or repository check before treating it as a recovery point. A failed process must remove its temporary file.
Two jobs consume disk space or lock the database
Use a non-blocking flock lock, and return a failure when another instance is active. Investigate why the original run is slow rather than allowing unbounded overlap. Large databases may need a lower-impact schedule, a dedicated backup host or a base-backup and WAL-archiving design.
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Remove passwords from command-line arguments and crontab entries. Use protected client option files or a secret store, restrict permissions, and review scheduler, shell and process-monitoring access. Rotate any secret that has already been exposed.
Restore fails because roles or routines are missing
For PostgreSQL, capture global objects separately with pg_dumpall --globals-only. For MySQL, include routines and events when the application needs them and verify that the dump account has permission to read them. Update the restore checklist whenever the application gains a new database dependency.
The restore is too slow for the outage objective
Measure the real restore time during drills. If logical dumps cannot meet the RTO at the current data size, evaluate filesystem or base backups, parallel restore options supported by your database tools, or PostgreSQL continuous archiving. Faster capture does not remove the need for consistency checks and restore testing.
A practical implementation checklist
- Define RPO and RTO for the application.
- Select a logical dump, filesystem/base backup or continuous-archiving design that meets those objectives.
- Create a least-privilege database backup identity.
- Store credentials and repository keys in protected files or a secret store, never in command arguments.
- Install a root-controlled wrapper under
/usr/local/sbin. - Use a lock, temporary filenames, strict permissions and non-zero exit codes.
- Capture PostgreSQL global objects or MySQL routines and events when required.
- Compress and encrypt the archive, then send it to storage outside the VPS account or host.
- Schedule with cron or systemd; restic itself does not provide scheduling.
- Apply documented daily, weekly and monthly retention rules where appropriate.
- Log status outside the backup directory and alert on failures, verification errors and low disk space.
- Restore from the off-site destination on a recurring schedule and record the result.
Bottom line
The safest default for a VPS is a locked, timestamped database-native dump sent to an encrypted off-site repository, with credentials restricted, retention automated and restores rehearsed. Use PostgreSQL WAL archiving or another base-backup design when point-in-time recovery or a shorter restore window justifies its added complexity. Whatever method you choose, only a successful restore test demonstrates that the backup is usable.
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