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The reliable workflow is: confirm the image has cloud-init enabled, build and validate the YAML, launch one test instance, inspect cloud-init’s status and logs, and verify the account, key, files, packages and services. Most modules run once per instance, so a reboot is not a general-purpose way to apply changed user-data.
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Cloud-init is the guest-side service that consumes user-data supplied by a cloud or virtualization platform. The platform must attach that data to the instance at launch, and the selected Linux image must include an installed and enabled cloud-init service. The console field, metadata endpoint and datasource differ by provider, so a script that works on one VPS platform may require a different launch setting on another.
There are two common user-data formats:
- Cloud-config: a YAML document whose first line is
#cloud-config. It declares users, packages, files, SSH keys and commands through cloud-init modules. - Executable user-data script: a text file beginning with a shebang such as
#!/bin/sh. Cloud-init runs it through the final-stagecc_scripts_usermodule.
Cloud-config is usually the maintainable default because each operation is visible in a named section. A shell script is useful when you already have imperative setup logic or need shell control flow that does not map cleanly to a module.
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Why first-boot timing matters
Cloud-init processes modules in stages. A command in runcmd is not executed at the instant cloud-init parses the YAML. The runcmd module writes a script, and the later scripts_user step executes that script during the final stage. A service-start command can therefore run after package installation and file creation, but still later than an interactive SSH login attempt made during boot.
Why a reboot usually does not repeat setup
Most cloud-init modules are designed for once-per-instance execution. Restarting the VPS does not normally replay every user-data module. If you change the configuration, use the provider’s documented clean-and-rerun procedure only when you understand its effect, or build a replacement instance and test the new data there.
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Cloud-config or a shell script?
| Approach | Input format | Strength | Execution behavior | Main risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cloud-config | YAML beginning with #cloud-config |
Declarative users, packages, files and commands | Individual modules run in cloud-init stages; runcmd writes a later script |
YAML quoting and provider-specific assumptions can cause failures |
| User-data shell script | Executable text beginning with a shebang | Familiar shell logic, branching and loops | Normally runs once in the final stage through cc_scripts_user |
Ordering, idempotence and shell error handling are your responsibility |
For a repeatable VPS bootstrap, use cloud-config for accounts, SSH keys, package installation and deterministic files. Add short, idempotent commands to runcmd. Choose a shell script when the setup genuinely needs shell logic, but keep it small and make its assumptions explicit.
Prerequisites before you write user-data
- Choose an image that has cloud-init installed and enabled. A plain image without the service cannot consume your YAML.
- Find the provider’s launch field for user-data and confirm whether it accepts raw text, a file upload or a datasource-specific format.
- Identify the distribution’s package names, default login account, service names and SSH daemon paths. These vary across distributions.
- Have an SSH public key ready. Prefer key-based access to embedding a plaintext password.
- Decide which files must persist after boot. Use a persistent path for those files; use
/runonly for intentionally temporary runtime data. - Keep credentials and other secrets out of user-data whenever possible. User-data can be exposed through provider consoles, metadata or logs.
Build a cloud-config file step by step
Start with the header and package declarations
The first line must identify the document as cloud-config. Set package_update: true when the image’s package indexes should be refreshed, then list packages under packages. This is preferable to embedding a long package-manager command in a shell block.
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Create the administrative login safely
Under users, include default when you need the distribution’s normal account and any SSH keys injected by the image or provider to remain available. Add a separate deployment account with its groups, shell, sudo rule and public key. The example below grants passwordless sudo to that account; use the least privilege appropriate for your environment.
Write configuration files deterministically
write_files creates a file with an exact path, permission mode and content. It is suitable for service configuration, notices and small environment files. Do not place a file that must survive setup in /tmp: cleanup services can remove it while cloud-init is still running.
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Run only the commands that need ordering
Use runcmd for enabling or starting a service and for small post-install tasks. List-form commands preserve argument boundaries and avoid unnecessary shell parsing. String-form commands are interpreted by sh, which is useful for pipes, redirection or shell operators but requires careful quoting.
#cloud-config
package_update: true
packages:
- nginx
users:
- default
- name: deploy
groups: [sudo]
shell: /bin/bash
sudo: ['ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD:ALL']
ssh_authorized_keys:
- ssh-ed25519 AAAA...replace-with-your-public-key
write_files:
- path: /etc/motd.d/cloud-init
permissions: '0644'
content: |
Provisioned by cloud-init
runcmd:
- [systemctl, enable, --now, nginx]
- [sh, -c, 'echo ready >/var/lib/cloud-init-ready']Replace the example public key with your own complete key. Replace nginx with the package and service your VPS actually uses. The final command writes a marker only after the preceding commands reach the runcmd stage; it is a simple way to check that the section ran.
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How to run a cloud-init script when your VPS starts
- Confirm support. Check the image documentation or the running image for an enabled cloud-init service. Verify that your provider passes launch-time user-data to that image’s datasource.
- Prepare the document. Save the YAML as a plain-text file beginning with
#cloud-config. Keep the provider’s user-data field separate from any later configuration-management system. - Add the minimum bootstrap. Define the required login account and SSH key, then add
package_update,packages,write_filesandruncmdonly as needed. - Validate before launch. Parse the YAML with a trusted validator and inspect indentation. Quote values containing a colon, braces, shell operators or leading zeroes so YAML does not reinterpret them.
- Launch a disposable test instance. Use the provider’s documented user-data control and wait for the first boot to finish. Do not begin with a production VPS that contains irreplaceable data.
- Check cloud-init itself. Inspect status and the two standard logs:
/var/log/cloud-init.logand/var/log/cloud-init-output.log. A status command such ascloud-init status --waitcan help you wait for completion when it is available on the image. - Verify the result. Log in with the intended account and key; confirm package versions, file ownership and modes, the marker file, and the service’s enabled and active state.
- Promote only after verification. Once the test instance matches the intended result, reuse the validated user-data for the production launch and record the image, distribution and provider assumptions alongside it.
What should go in cloud-config?
Users and SSH keys
Use the users module for account creation, group membership, login shell, sudo policy and authorized keys. Include default when retaining the image’s standard user and provider-injected keys matters. Omitting it can leave you with a newly created account but no expected default login path.
Packages
Put normal software installation under packages. Cloud-init can update package indexes first with package_update: true. Package names differ by distribution, so document the target image and do not assume that a package name or service unit is universal.
Files
Use write_files when the file’s contents, path and permissions should be reproducible. Choose locations under /etc, /var/lib or another persistent filesystem according to what the service expects. Avoid /tmp for cloud-init-managed files because a system cleanup job can race with the bootstrap process.
Commands
Use list-form runcmd entries such as [systemctl, enable, --now, service] when no shell interpretation is needed. Use a string only when you intentionally need shell syntax. Quote YAML-sensitive text, especially values containing a colon; otherwise the parser can treat part of the value as structure instead of data.
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Why did runcmd run late or only once?
The apparent delay is expected. Cloud-init first parses the configuration and writes the runcmd script; the final-stage scripts module runs that script later in boot. Package installation and file creation can therefore precede the command, while network initialization or other modules may still affect the exact timing.
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Parameterize distribution assumptions
Default usernames, package names, service names and SSH daemon locations vary across distributions. Keep those values in clearly identified sections, select an image deliberately, and avoid presenting one distribution’s paths as universal. If the same bootstrap targets multiple images, use separate validated variants rather than silently guessing.
Prefer naturally idempotent operations
Package declarations, writing a file to a fixed path and enabling a named service are easier to reason about than an unbounded shell script. For custom commands, use marker files or checks so a rerun does not duplicate users, append the same line repeatedly or overwrite data unexpectedly. The marker-file pattern in the example is useful for observation, not a substitute for checking the actual service state.
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Use Jinja only with known instance data
Cloud-init can render Jinja templates from instance-data. A variable that does not exist for the target datasource produces a warning and a CI_MISSING_JINJA_VAR/... marker. Test every variable name against the target image and datasource before relying on rendered values. A template that silently assumes one provider’s metadata can fail when moved to another.
Security decisions for user-data
- Use SSH public keys instead of plaintext passwords whenever the image and provider support them.
- Do not hard-code long-lived API tokens, private keys or database passwords in user-data. Prefer a later secret-delivery mechanism appropriate to the platform.
- Limit sudo rules to the accounts and commands that need them. The example’s
NOPASSWDrule is convenient for automation but grants broad authority. - Review file permissions in
write_files. A configuration containing credentials should not use a world-readable mode. - Remember that cloud-init logs can contain command output. Avoid echoing secrets and inspect log access controls on the finished VPS.
Troubleshooting common failures
| Symptom | Likely cause | What to check or change |
|---|---|---|
| No account, package or file appears | User-data was not passed, or the image lacks enabled cloud-init | Confirm the provider’s launch field, datasource support and cloud-init service before changing YAML |
| YAML is rejected or later keys are ignored | Indentation or an unquoted YAML-sensitive value | Validate the document; quote colons, braces, shell operators and leading zeroes |
| The command appears to run late | runcmd is executed in the final stage, not while YAML is parsed |
Wait for cloud-init completion and inspect both log files before judging timing |
| A reboot does not apply edited user-data | Per-instance execution state prevents a normal rerun | Use the provider’s clean-and-rerun procedure or rebuild the instance |
| The expected default login no longer works | The users list replaced the image’s default-user handling |
Include default when retaining the normal account and injected keys is required |
| A file disappears during setup | It was written under /tmp and cleaned by a system timer |
Move persistent content to a durable path; reserve /run for intentional runtime files |
| A service fails to start | Wrong package name, unit name, path or distribution assumption | Check the target distribution’s package and service names, then inspect cloud-init output and service status |
| Template output contains a missing-variable marker | Jinja referenced data unavailable from that datasource | Verify the variable against the target instance-data schema or remove the template dependency |
Adapting the pattern for a game-server VPS
The same bootstrap sequence works when the VPS will host a game service: create the administrative account, install the distribution’s required packages, write configuration files, and enable the service after installation. Keep the game daemon’s package name, unit name, data directory and required permissions explicit for the chosen distribution. Do not assume that a command or path from one image is portable to another.
For a large or stateful game installation, keep user-data focused on the base operating environment. Fetching extensive game assets, secrets or changing world data in a one-shot first-boot script makes failures harder to recover from. Use cloud-init to establish a predictable starting point, then let a service-specific deployment process manage content that changes independently of the VPS image.
Quick Recap
Final launch checklist
- The selected image includes enabled cloud-init and the provider passes user-data to it.
- The file begins with
#cloud-configand passes YAML validation. - The intended account, SSH key and sudo policy are explicit;
defaultis present when required. - Packages are listed under
packages, with the correct names for the target distribution. - Persistent files use durable paths and have deliberate permissions.
runcmduses list form unless shell parsing is intentional.- Secrets are kept out of user-data and command output where possible.
- A test instance has been checked through cloud-init status, both logs, account access, package versions, file modes and service state.
- The team knows that most modules are once per instance and has a documented rebuild or clean-and-rerun plan.
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